GPT

Transform is a state-of-the-art architecture for machine translation. OpenAI tried to use this architecture for the language modeling task in this paper “Improving Language Understanding by Generative Pre-Training” under the name “Improving Language Understanding by Generative Pre-Training” which was published in 2018. Pre-training is the process of training a model with one task (language modeling in the paper) that is able to help it form parameters that can be used to make other tasks easier (four other tasks: natural language inference, question answering, semantic similarity, and text classification).

The Encoder-Decoder structure of the transformer made it perfect for machine translation. But how would you use it to pre-train a language model that can be fine-tuned for other tasks like sentiment analysis or text classification? The way openAI team did it was pretty smart. It turns out that we don’t need the entire transformer architecture to adopt a language model. We can do it with just the decoder of the transformer.

The decoder is a good choice because it’s a natural choice for language modeling (predicting the next word) since it’s built to mask future tokens. Since there is no encoder in this set up, the decoder layer would not have the encoder-decoder attention sub-layer that vanilla transformer decoder layers have. So, the decoder architecture becomes as shown in the image on the right.

In the original paper, they stacked twelve decoder layers with a feed-forward neural network at the end with Softmax loss function. With this structure, we can proceed to train the model on the same language modeling task: predict the next word using massive (unlabeled) datasets.

Model Specification

The language model was trained on the BooksCorpus dataset for training the language model. This dataset contains over 7,000 unique unpublished books from a variety of genres. Crucially, it contains long stretches of contiguous text, which allows the generative model to learn to condition on long-range information.

The model, itself, has the following characteristics:

• 12-layer decoder-only transformer.

• Masked self-attention with multi-heads (768 dimensional states and 12 attention heads).

• For the position-wise feed-forward networks, they used 3072 neurons.

• They used the Adam optimization scheme.

• The learning rate was increased linearly from zero over the first 2000 updates and annealed to 0 using a cosine schedule with a max learning rate of 2.5e-4.

• We train for 100 epochs on minibatches of 64 randomly sampled, contiguous sequences of 512 tokens.

• Since layer normalization is used extensively throughout the model, a simple weight initialization of $\mathcal{N}(0,\ 0.02)$ was sufficient.

• They used a bytepair encoding (BPE) vocabulary with 40,000 merges.

• Residual, embedding, and attention dropouts with a rate of 0.1 for regularization.

• They also employed a modified version of L2 regularization proposed in this paper, with w = 0.01 on all non bias or gain weights.

• For the activation function, we used the Gaussian Error Linear Unit (GELU).

• They used learned position embeddings instead of the sinusoidal version proposed in the original work.

Fine-Tuning

The OpenAI paper outlines a number of input transformations to handle the inputs for different types of tasks. Since our language model was trained on contiguous sequences of text, we require some modifications to apply it to the different NLP tasks.

Previous work proposed learning task-specific architectures on top of transferred representations. We use a traversal-style approach where we convert structured inputs into an ordered sequence that our pre-trained model can process which allows us to avoid making extensive changes to the architecture across different tasks.

The following image shows the structures of the model and the input transformations to carry out different tasks. In these transformations, we are using the following special tokens; $\left\langle s \right\rangle$ for start token, $\left\langle e \right\rangle$ for extract token, and $\left\langle \$ \right\rangle$ for delimiter token:

So, for example the classification model will look like this: